Use apostrophes in contractions and possessives, set off interjections with punctuation, and expand sentences with because, so and but

Learning goal: Write complete sentences demonstrating knowledge of punctuation conventions: use apostrophes to form contractions and possessives, such as contractions with am, is, has and not (I'm, she's, don't); use punctuation to set off interjections; and expand sentences using frequently occurring conjunctions such as because, so and but. This lesson teaches Ohio's 2026 English language arts standard for grade 2, first implemented in the 2027-28 school year. The first part of the same standard, commas with words in a series, is taught in the grade 2 letter-writing lesson.

For the adult: why these belong together. Each of these tools is small on the page and changes how a sentence is read. An apostrophe tells the reader that letters are missing or that something is someone's. The mark after an interjection tells the reader how strong a feeling is. A conjunction tells the reader how a second idea connects to the first. Read the note aloud once for enjoyment, then come back to it for one tool at a time.

Original note — A Note for Grandma June

Dear Grandma June,

Wow! It snowed all night. I'm at the window, and I can't stop looking. Max's sled was stuck behind Dad's shovel, so we pulled the shovel out first. Oh, I almost forgot my hat. Max looked for it. He's found it under the dog's bed! We didn't come inside until lunch because the hill was perfect. Max wanted one more ride, but his mittens were soaked. It's still snowing. Hooray!

Love,
Tess

Complete sentences come first. Every tool in this lesson works inside a complete sentence: a subject (who or what), a predicate (what they do or are), a capital letter at the start and an end mark. "Max looked for it." is complete. "Looked under the bed" is not: it has no subject.

Apostrophes in contractions (WF.2.3b). A contraction is two words written as one shorter word. An apostrophe (') takes the place of the letters that were left out.
- With am: I am → I'm (the a is left out).
- With is: she is → she's, it is → it's, there is → there's (the i is left out).
- With has: he has → he's, she has → she's (the h and a are left out).
- With not: do not → don't, did not → didn't, is not → isn't (the o in not is left out); can not, usually written as the one word cannot → can't (an n and the o are left out).

The apostrophe goes exactly where the letters are missing: don't, not "do'nt". One common contraction changes its spelling: will not → won't. Because she's can mean she is or she has, read the rest of the sentence: "She's happy" means she is happy; "She's lost her hat" means she has lost her hat. To check any contraction, say the two full words in the sentence. If "I am at the window" makes sense, I'm is right.

Apostrophes in possessives (WF.2.3b). A possessive tells whose something is: who or what it belongs to or goes with. For one person, animal or thing, add an apostrophe and s to the owner: Max's sled (the sled that belongs to Max), Dad's shovel, the dog's bed. To test it, turn it around: "the bed of the dog" → the dog's bed. (For a name that already ends in s, such as James, books differ: James's and James' are both in use, so follow your class's style.) This lesson forms possessives for one owner; possessives for more than one owner (the dogs' beds) come in a later grade.

Apostrophe or no apostrophe? Three kinds of words look alike.
1. A plural means more than one and has no apostrophe: two sleds, his mittens.
2. A possessive noun has an apostrophe and s: Max's sled.
3. The possessive pronouns his, hers, its, ours, yours and theirs never have an apostrophe. So it's always means it is or it has, and its means "belonging to it": "It's still snowing." "The dog shook its coat."

Ask two questions before you write an apostrophe: Are letters left out (a contraction)? Does the word tell whose (a possessive noun)? If the answer to both is no, do not use one.

Punctuation that sets off interjections (WF.2.3c). An interjection is a word or short phrase that shows a sudden feeling or reaction: wow, oh, oops, ouch, hooray, uh-oh, well. It is not part of the subject or the predicate, so a punctuation mark sets it off (separates it) from the rest.
- Strong feeling: put an exclamation point after the interjection, and begin the next word with a capital, because a new sentence starts: "Wow! It snowed all night."
- Milder feeling: put a comma after the interjection, and keep going in the same sentence. The next word does not start a new sentence, so it begins with a lowercase letter unless it is a name or the word I, which always have capitals: "Well, we can try again." "Oh, I almost forgot my hat."

The writer chooses the mark by how strong the feeling is, but one of the two marks must be there: "Wow it snowed" leaves the reader to guess. An interjection with its exclamation point can stand by itself ("Hooray!"). It has no subject and predicate, so it is not a complete sentence, but an interjection with an exclamation point may still be written alone. Interjections fit notes, stories and the words people say. An informative report rarely needs one.

Expanding sentences with conjunctions (WF.2.3d). A conjunction is a joining word. Three conjunctions that come up often let you expand a short sentence by adding a second idea, and each one tells the reader how the two ideas connect.
- because adds a reason (it answers why?): "We didn't come inside until lunch because the hill was perfect."
- so adds a result (it answers what happened because of that?): "Max's sled was stuck behind Dad's shovel, so we pulled the shovel out first."
- but adds a difference or a problem (something that does not go the way you would expect): "Max wanted one more ride, but his mittens were soaked."

To expand a short sentence such as "We came inside.", ask one of the three questions and add the answer after the conjunction. Punctuation: when so or but joins two complete sentences, put a comma before it. When because comes in the middle of the sentence, there is usually no comma. If the because part comes first, a comma follows it: "Because the hill was perfect, we stayed outside." The other frequent conjunctions, and and or, work the same way as so and but: "I'm at the window, and I can't stop looking."

The expanded sentence must still be one complete sentence. "Because the hill was perfect." is not complete by itself in writing. It has a subject and a verb, but because tells the reader that another part is coming. Attach it to the sentence it explains. (When someone asks "Why?" out loud, answering "Because the hill was perfect" is ordinary talk; in school writing, write the whole sentence.)

A fully worked model: editing a note.

Draft: wow it snowed. im so cold. maxs sled is fast. i didnt fall. we went inside.

Step 1, the interjection: Wow shows strong feeling, so set it off with an exclamation point and start the next sentence with a capital: Wow! It snowed. Step 2, contractions: im stands for I am, so the apostrophe replaces the a: I'm. didnt stands for did not, so the apostrophe replaces the o: didn't. Step 3, the possessive: the sled belongs to Max, one owner, so add an apostrophe and s: Max's sled. Step 4, expand with conjunctions: why was the writer cold? I'm so cold because my mittens are wet. What did not go the way you would expect? Max's sled is fast, but I didn't fall. (two short sentences joined, with a comma before but). What was the result of going inside? We went inside, so Dad made cocoa. Step 5, capitals and end marks on every sentence. Edited: Wow! It snowed. I'm so cold because my mittens are wet. Max's sled is fast, but I didn't fall. We went inside, so Dad made cocoa. The edited note has 1 interjection, 2 contractions, 1 possessive and 3 sentences expanded with because, but and so.

The misconception, and why it is wrong. Many children start putting an apostrophe before every s at the end of a word ("two sled's", "the dog's ran"). A plural such as sleds or dogs is made without an apostrophe. The apostrophe does only two jobs in this lesson: it marks missing letters in a contraction, and it marks the owner in a possessive. A second common mistake is treating because as the start of a new sentence every time; the because part needs its other half.

Worked example 1 — contractions. Write each pair as a contraction and name the missing letters. I am cold → I'm cold (a). She is here → She's here (i). She has gone home → She's gone home (h and a). They do not know → They don't know (the o in not). Check the place of the apostrophe in don't: it sits between n and t, where the o was, not between o and n. Read each sentence with the two full words to make sure it still makes sense.

Worked example 2 — possessive, plural or its? "The bowl of the dog" → the dog's bowl (one dog owns the bowl: apostrophe and s). "The coat that belongs to Rosa" → Rosa's coat. "Two dogs ran" has no apostrophe: dogs is a plural, and nothing is owned. "It's cold, and the cat hides its paws": It's means it is (a contraction), and its means "belonging to the cat" (a possessive pronoun, no apostrophe). Test the first one by saying "It is cold": it makes sense. Test the second: "the cat hides it is paws" does not make sense, so no apostrophe.

Worked example 3 — setting off interjections. Fix: ouch that snowball was hard The feeling is strong and sudden, so use an exclamation point and a new capital: Ouch! That snowball was hard. Fix: well we can build it again The feeling is mild, so use a comma and keep going: Well, we can build it again. In both, a mark separates the interjection from the sentence that follows.

Worked example 4 — expanding one sentence three ways. Short sentence: The snowman fell. Ask why? and add a reason with because: The snowman fell because the sun came out. Ask what happened because of that? and add a result with so: The snowman fell, so we built a new one. Ask what was different from what you would expect? and add it with but: The snowman fell, but its hat stayed on. The commas come before so and but; there is none before because. Notice its hat: no apostrophe, because its is a possessive pronoun.

Representation task — the three-tool chart: Make a chart with three columns: Apostrophe, Interjection, Conjunction. Reread "A Note for Grandma June" and copy each example into its column. In the apostrophe column, write C for a contraction (and the two full words) or P for a possessive (and the owner). In the interjection column, circle the mark that sets it off. In the conjunction column, write reason, result or difference beside each one. Then add one example of your own to each column.

Independent performance — a note about a surprising day: Write a note to a real or imaginary friend or relative about a day when something surprised you. Success criteria: (1) at least five complete sentences, each with a capital and an end mark; (2) at least two contractions with the apostrophe where the letters are missing, one of them made with not; (3) at least two possessives formed with an apostrophe and s, and no apostrophe in any plural; (4) at least one interjection set off with an exclamation point or a comma; (5) three expanded sentences, one each with because, so and but, with a comma before so and but; (6) you reread the note aloud, saying the two full words for each contraction to check it. The adult checks each item and records any help given.